1 “UAW International Headquarters,” https://perma.cc/4C4C-QW7M.
2 “Right-to-Work States Timeline” (National Right to Work Committee, 2022), https://perma.cc/QDB2-9R4N.
3 Jarrett Skorup, “Michigan's Right-to-Work Law Led to Huge Drop in Union Membership" (Mackinac Center for Public Policy, March 4, 2021), https://perma.cc/2MCZ-3YMC.
4 Calculations by Jarrett Skorup, based on data compiled by Barry Hirsch and David Macpherson and available at UnionStats.com.
5 James Gwartney et al., “Economic Freedom of the World” (Fraser Institute, 2020), https://perma.cc/KL4H-R5MP.
6 James Gwartney, Robert Lawson and Walter Block, “Economic Freedom of the World: 1975-1995” (Fraser Institute, 1996), 16, https://perma.cc/243E-SXS7.
7 Dean Stansel, Jose Torra and Fred McMahon, “Economic Freedom of North America 2020” (Fraser Institute, 2020), 2, https://perma.cc/2QWB-XDBL.
8 Dean Stansel, Jose Torra and Fred McMahon, “Economic Freedom of North America 2020” (Fraser Institute, 2020), 7, https://perma.cc/2QWB-XDBL; Avilia Bueno, Nathan J. Ashby and Fred McMahon, “Economic Freedom of North America 2012” (Fraser Institute, 2012), 3, https://perma.cc/M483-3C2R.
9 Dean Stansel, Torra Jose and Fred McMahon, “Economic Freedom of North America 2021” (Fraser Institute, 2021), 53, https://perma.cc/DA78-8XXX.
10 “Revised Delineations of Metropolitan Statistical Areas, Micropolitan Statistical Areas, and Combined Statistical Areas, and Guidance on Uses of the Delineations of These Areas,” OMB Bulletin No. 17-10 (U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Aug. 15, 2017), https://perma.cc/C4QP-N45T.
11 “Metropolitan and Micropolitan: About” (United States Census Bureau, Nov. 22, 2021), https://perma.cc/ZQ49-Z36Z.
12 Dean Stansel, “U.S. Metropolitan Area Economic Freedom Index” (Reason Foundation, 2020), 8, https://perma.cc/A7N5-XT23.
13 Dean Stansel, “U.S. Metropolitan Area Economic Freedom Index” (Reason Foundation, 2020), 9, https://perma.cc/A7N5-XT23.
14 Dean Stansel, “U.S. Metropolitan Area Economic Freedom Index” (Reason Foundation, 2020), 9, https://perma.cc/A7N5-XT23.
15 Dean Stansel, “U.S. Metropolitan Area Economic Freedom Index” (Reason Foundation, 2020), 10, https://perma.cc/A7N5-XT23.
16 Dean Stansel, “U.S. Metropolitan Area Economic Freedom Index” (Reason Foundation, 2020), 5, https://perma.cc/A7N5-XT23.
17 Dean Stansel and Meg Tuszynski, “Sub-National Economic Freedom: A Review and Analysis of the Literature,” Journal of Regional Analysis and Policy 48, no. 1 (2017): 9–10, https://perma.cc/2TDH-DAL4.
18 Dean Stansel and Meg Tuszynski, “Sub-National Economic Freedom: A Review and Analysis of the Literature,” Journal of Regional Analysis and Policy 48, no. 1 (2017): 10, https://perma.cc/2TDH-DAL4.
19 Lauren R. Heller and E. Frank Stephenson, “Economic Freedom and Labor Market Conditions: Evidence from the States,” Contemporary Economic Policy 32, no. 1 (2014): 2–3, https://perma.cc/955F-FTTC.
20 Lauren R. Heller and E. Frank Stephenson, “Economic Freedom and Labor Market Conditions: Evidence from the States,” Contemporary Economic Policy 32, no. 1 (2014): 4, https://perma.cc/955F-FTTC.
21 Lauren R. Heller and E. Frank Stephenson, “Economic Freedom and Labor Market Conditions: Evidence from the States,” Contemporary Economic Policy 32, no. 1 (2014): 5, https://perma.cc/955F-FTTC.
22 Lauren R. Heller and E. Frank Stephenson, “Economic Freedom and Labor Market Conditions: Evidence from the States,” Contemporary Economic Policy 32, no. 1 (2014): 4–5, https://perma.cc/955F-FTTC.
23 Jeffrey J. Yankow, “A Longitudinal Analysis of the Impact of State Economic Freedom on Individual Wages,” The Journal of Regional Analysis & Policy 44, no. 1 (2014): 58, https://perma.cc/JBJ2-2SV2.
24 Jeffrey J. Yankow, “A Longitudinal Analysis of the Impact of State Economic Freedom on Individual Wages,” The Journal of Regional Analysis & Policy 44, no. 1 (2014): 62, https://perma.cc/JBJ2-2SV2.
25 Jeffrey J. Yankow, “A Longitudinal Analysis of the Impact of State Economic Freedom on Individual Wages,” The Journal of Regional Analysis & Policy 44, no. 1 (2014): 61, https://perma.cc/JBJ2-2SV2.
26 Jeffrey J. Yankow, “A Longitudinal Analysis of the Impact of State Economic Freedom on Individual Wages,” The Journal of Regional Analysis & Policy 44, no. 1 (2014): 67, https://perma.cc/JBJ2-2SV2.
27 Ryan A. Compton, Daniel C. Giedeman and Gary A. Hoover, “Panel Evidence on Economic Freedom and Growth in the United States,” European Journal of Political Economy2 (2011): 424, https://perma.cc/8NCD-VFUY.
28 Ryan A. Compton, Daniel C. Giedeman and Gary A. Hoover, “Panel Evidence on Economic Freedom and Growth in the United States,” European Journal of Political Economy2 (2011): 433, https://perma.cc/8NCD-VFUY.
29 Thomas A. Garrett and Rhussell M. Rhine, “Economic Freedom and Employment Growth in U.S. States,” Review 93, no. 1 (Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, January 2011): 5, https://perma.cc/H7KM-XCTA.
30 Daniel L. Bennett, “Subnational Economic Freedom and Performance in the United States and Canada,” Cato Journal 36, no. 1 (2016): 166–167, https://perma.cc/2UC6-P3H7.
31 Nathan J Ashby, “Economic Freedom and Migration Flows between U.S. States,” Southern Economic Journal 73, no. 3 (2011): 688, https://www.jstor.org/stable/20111918.
32 Nathan J Ashby, “Economic Freedom and Migration Flows between U.S. States,” Southern Economic Journal 73, no. 3 (2011): 677, https://www.jstor.org/stable/20111918.
33 “Kauffman Index of Startup Activity” (Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation, 2017), 6, https://perma.cc/8MDL-FNCP.
34 Shishir Shakya and Alicia Plemmons, “The Impact of Economic Freedom on Startups,” Journal of Regional Analysis 51, no. 1 (2021): 30, https://perma.cc/KP3D-2UUL.
35 Shishir Shakya and Alicia Plemmons, “The Impact of Economic Freedom on Startups,” Journal of Regional Analysis 51, no. 1 (2021): 35-36, https://perma.cc/KP3D-2UUL.
36 Richard J. Cebula et al., “The Impact of Labor Market Freedom on State-Level In-Migration in the US: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis, 2008-2016,” Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy 9, no. 1 (2020): 41, https://perma.cc/74ZM-3PFX.
37 Richard J. Cebula et al., “The Impact of Labor Market Freedom on State-Level In-Migration in the US: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis, 2008-2016,” Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy 9, no. 1 (2020): 43–44, https://perma.cc/74ZM-3PFX.
38 Richard J. Cebula et al., “The Impact of Labor Market Freedom on State-Level In-Migration in the US: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis, 2008-2016,” Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy 9, no. 1 (2020): 49, https://perma.cc/74ZM-3PFX.
39 Richard J. Cebula et al., “The Impact of Labor Market Freedom on State-Level In-Migration in the US: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis, 2008-2016,” Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy 9, no. 1 (2020): 47, https://perma.cc/74ZM-3PFX.
40 Richard Cebula et al., “The Impact of Labor Freedom on Geographic Cost of Living Differentials,” Journal of Entreprenuership and Public Policy 6, no. 3 (2017): 390, https://perma.cc/J9SY-J7CX.
41 Richard Cebula et al., “The Impact of Labor Freedom on Geographic Cost of Living Differentials,” Journal of Entreprenuership and Public Policy 6, no. 3 (2017): 392, https://perma.cc/J9SY-J7CX.
42 Richard Cebula et al., “The Impact of Labor Freedom on Geographic Cost of Living Differentials,” Journal of Entreprenuership and Public Policy 6, no. 3 (2017): 391, https://perma.cc/J9SY-J7CX.
43 Richard Cebula et al., “The Impact of Labor Freedom on Geographic Cost of Living Differentials,” Journal of Entreprenuership and Public Policy 6, no. 3 (2017): 392, https://perma.cc/J9SY-J7CX.
44 Richard Cebula et al., “The Impact of Labor Freedom on Geographic Cost of Living Differentials,” Journal of Entreprenuership and Public Policy 6, no. 3 (2017): 392, https://perma.cc/J9SY-J7CX.
45 Richard J. Cebula, “Labor Market Freedom and Geographic Differentials in the Percentage Unemployment Rate in the U.S.,” Journal of Economics and Finance 43 (2019): 828, https://perma.cc/LBJ6-WEPF.
46 Joshua C. Hall, Donald J. Lacombe and Timothy M. Shaughnessy, “Economic Freedom and Income Levels Across U.S. States: A Spatial Data Analysis,” Contemporary Economic Policy 37, no. 1 (2018): 40, https://perma.cc/5KJY-GNYV.
47 Joshua C. Hall, Donald J. Lacombe and Timothy M. Shaughnessy, “Economic Freedom and Income Levels Across U.S. States: A Spatial Data Analysis,” Contemporary Economic Policy 37, no. 1 (2018): 46, https://perma.cc/5KJY-GNYV.
48 Richard J. Cebula, John Connaughton and Caroline Swartz, “An Empirical Analysis of the Impact of the Three Labor Market Freedom Indices and Occupational Licensing on Interstate Living-Cost Differentials,” The Journal of Private Enterprise 33, no. 3 (2018): 50, https://perma.cc/U42D-AD5E.
49 Richard J. Cebula, John Connaughton and Caroline Swartz, “An Empirical Analysis of the Impact of the Three Labor Market Freedom Indices and Occupational Licensing on Interstate Living-Cost Differentials,” The Journal of Private Enterprise 33, no. 3 (2018): 60, https://perma.cc/U42D-AD5E.
50 J. Matthew Shumway, “Economic Freedom, Migration and Income Change Among U.S. Metropolitan Areas,” Current Urban Studies2 6 (2018): 17, https://perma.cc/EAW2-FZDU.
51 J. Matthew Shumway, “Economic Freedom, Migration and Income Change Among U.S. Metropolitan Areas,” Current Urban Studies2 6 (2018): 6, https://perma.cc/EAW2-FZDU.
52 J. Matthew Shumway, “Economic Freedom, Migration and Income Change Among U.S. Metropolitan Areas,” Current Urban Studies2 6 (2018): 8-10, https://perma.cc/EAW2-FZDU.
53 J. Matthew Shumway, “Economic Freedom, Migration and Income Change Among U.S. Metropolitan Areas,” Current Urban Studies2 6 (2018): 11–12, https://perma.cc/EAW2-FZDU.
54 Imran Arif et al., “Economic Freedom and Migration: A Metro Area-Level Analysis,” Southern Economic Journal 87 (2020): 170–190, https://perma.cc/6J8H-CYGX.
55 Imran Arif et al., “Economic Freedom and Migration: A Metro Area-Level Analysis,” Southern Economic Journal 87 (2020): 185, https://perma.cc/6J8H-CYGX.
56 Daniel L. Bennett, “Local Economic Freedom and Creative Destruction,” Small Business Economics: An Entreprenurial Journal 56 (2021): 333, https://perma.cc/73ZC-UUCV.
57 Daniel L. Bennett, “Local Economic Freedom and Creative Destruction,” Small Business Economics: An Entreprenurial Journal 56 (2021): 339, https://perma.cc/73ZC-UUCV.
58 Daniel L. Bennett, “Local Economic Freedom and Creative Destruction,” Small Business Economics: An Entreprenurial Journal 56 (2021): 339, https://perma.cc/73ZC-UUCV.
59 Daniel L. Bennett, “Local Economic Freedom and Creative Destruction,” Small Business Economics: An Entreprenurial Journal 56 (2021): 333, https://perma.cc/73ZC-UUCV.
60 “Minimum Wage” (Michigan Department of Labor & Economic Opportunity, 2022), https://perma.cc/2KFC-TFDE.
61 Craig Mauger, “Michigan Judge’s Ruling Could Lead to Minimum Wage Hike for Workers” (The Detroit News, July 19, 2022), https://perma.cc/R644-YCAJ.
62 For more information, see: “Michigan $15 Minimum Wage Initiative (2024)” (Ballotpedia, 2022), https://perma.cc/WJ2S-DNVV.
63 “Business Response Survey to the Coronavirus Pandemic: 2020 Results of the Business Response Survey” (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics), Table 2e, https://perma.cc/74ZF-A45U.
64 Brianna Rice, “New Census Data Show Michigan Population Declining” (Michigan Radio, July 5, 2022), https://perma.cc/H6TG-RPHQ.
65 Richard Vedder, “Right-to-Work Laws: Liberty, Prosperity, and Quality of Life” (Washington DC: Cato Institute, 2010), 174, https://perma.cc/5VTH-9C9X.
66 Richard J. Cebula et al., “The Impact of Labor Market Freedom on State-Level In-Migration in the US: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis, 2008-2016,” Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy 9, no. 1 (2020): 49, https://perma.cc/74ZM-3PFX.